Sunday, January 26, 2020
What It Means To Be A Great Power Politics Essay
What It Means To Be A Great Power Politics Essay Great Powers are the most powerful members in the international system. The idea of Great Power plays a significant role in the theory of international relations as any changes in the Great Powers strategies or emergence of new Great Powers normally alter the status quo. This essay began by examining the different criteria used by scholars to define Great Powers, following by my own definition of Great Powers to further discuss and illustrate my understanding of this concept. Today, China plays a new role in the international system, garnering increasing attention around the globe. Chinas economic strength and political clout are already influencing places beyond the Asia Pacific region. Africa, as a place in which Chinese engagement is expanding rapidly, can be used as a region to assess whether China is a Great Power or not. The second part of the essay analyses Chinas foreign policy towards Africa since the 1990s with attention to Chinas objectives there as well as the reactions of the African. Various aspects will be discussed, including Chinas political, economic, military presences and soft power to assess whether China is a Great power in Africa or not. II. Definition of Great Powers in the International System Scholarly definitions The traditional definition of great power can be found in the distinction made at the Paris Peace Conference, which suggested that great power is a state with a global scope of interests in the international arenaà [1]à Throughout the years, the concept of great power has been conceptualized by a number of theoretical schools of international relations, for example, realism, liberal internationalism and constructivism. According to a prominent British historian Arnold Toynbee, great power can be defined as a political force exerting an effect coextensive with the widest range of the society in which it operatesà [2]à , while one of the leading scholars of the international relations in 20th century, Martin Wight regards, great powers as powers with general interests, i.e. those whose interests are as wide as the state systems itself, which today means worldwide.à [3]à And for Professor Hedley Bull from the University of Oxford, great power contributes to international system by managing their relations with one another; and by exploiting their preponderance in such way as to import a degree of central direction to the affairs of international society as a whole.à [4]à I agree with these viewpoints that the ability to project influence and power beyond its region is a decisive factor for defining greatness. The concept of great power is a pivot in many realists international relations models, including the theory of hegemony, balance of power and the polarity in international system. According to a prominent Neo-realist scholar, Waltz Kenneth stated in his remarkably influential book, Theory of International Politics, the great powers extraordinary positions in the international system enable them to undertake tasks that other states have neither the incentive nor the ability to perform.à [5]à Some realist scholars argued that there is asymmetry of power within the international system. According to Krasner, when power asymmetries are high, the frequency of intervention increase.à [6]à He put forward the argument that a great power intervene the weaker states internal affairs by various norms, values and principles to justify and legitimize their actions. They sometimes violate those values and principles, but themselves stay free from external interference.à [7]à Another realist scholar, Leurdijk also suggested that the international system is in hierarchical relations- relations of dominance and subordination.à [8]à That means, the great powers are those who dominant over the subordinated countries. Therefore, from this perspective, a great power is a state which has more state sovereignty and autonomy it can claim, and it is subject to less external intervention.à [9]à Also, a great power is able to enforce the rule of international law. Meanwhile, contemporary international law incorporates broader ideas more than the rule of non-intervention. According to Khachikian from Stanford University, it now embraces ideas of permissible intervention, such as enforcing international peace, protecting one nationals, preventing a spillover across state borders, stopping mass human suffering and othersà [10]à Generally speaking, the traditional definitions of great power emphasize on the powers wide global interests in the international system, while some scholars consider great power as a state which possess the capacity to exercise influence within the international system. From this perspective, great powers are able to intervene their targets of intervention and not being a target of intervention by other actors in the international system. To conclude, we may say that the former viewpoint stress on goal and interests while the latter on put emphasis on capability and influence. Both of the concepts are able to provide us a general view. And it is true that a great power should be a state playing active role in the international system and possess the ability to influence on the region it interested in. Nevertheless, I am of the opinion that the definition of Great Power should also be something more specific and concrete. There need to be a standard unit of account for measuring political power. In this essay, I will assess a countrys power through various defining elements, for example, its geographic base, economic resources, educational and technical level, military potential etc. Great Power in a more tangible sense To be a great power in international system, the nation has to possess not only economic prosperity and military might, but also strong soft power and identity as a leader. In this essay, economic strength refers to the level of development. For soft power, strong cultural ties with other countries, moral strength and technological level should be considered. Identity as a leader refers to the bargaining power in international arena and the ability to take action independently and at the same time, plays an active and co-operative role in the international system. Economic strength Economic strength cannot merely assessed by the size of the economy, but also to what extent, the economy is developed. From my perspective, a great power must be economically developed. Economic development used here includes several meanings: First, the growth of national income (measured by the Gross National Product) or the output of goods and services per head of population. Second, the increase in ability of a society to produce goods and services and to satisfy wants. However, If we consider development as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy,à [11]à as what Professor Amartya Sen put forward, then one can argue that economic development as a process of expanding the economic freedoms that people enjoy. Apart from monetary value, economic security, living standards, life expectancy, and social welfare like education and health services should also be considered. Therefore, internally within a Great power, people should enjoy the rights to sell and purchase the goods at equilibrium prices provided by a competitive environment which the movement of labor and capital is fr ee. Also, it should be structurally strong in the industrial, financial and technological sectors. Economic growth is often the greatest source of global influence. Nevertheless, high-level of economically developed is just a criterion for being a Great Power. For a Great Power in International System, the country should accept and adapt to the rules of games in the international system. Economically, the country has to cooperate with other leading economies in overcoming obstacles to world trade, being an active part of the international market. Military strength Military strength is a significant factor of a countrys power projection capacity. Military strength of a certain country is usually measured by military expenditure, defense spending, number of military personnel and aircraft carrier, size of navy, etc. However, we should not neglect the level of military technology in assessing a countries power. The arm force of a Great Power should be a modernized one. Furthermore, to be a Great power in international system, the state has to maintain frequent high-level dialogue regarding strategic matters with other actors within the international system. Soft power and identity as a leader The concept of Soft Power is invented by Harvard University political scientist Joseph Nye, he stated that soft power rests on the ability to shape the preferences of others.à [12]à From my point of view, this idea embraces cultural factors, educational level, reputation of the state, etc. The higher the level of soft power, the higher the countrys ability to achieve their objectives in their targeted region, therefore, it is a crucial criteria for being a great power. National image is something intangible but important for a nation to portray itself as a great power. Stability of political and social systems, cultural interactions with other countries, active participation and contributions to world peace are all related to how the country is seen by the outside world. Having respect and prestige, it does not only help the state to overcome its internal problems, but also convince the targeted region that their actions are legitimized. A great power must be able to influence on the region you interested in, at the same time, that region welcome your influence and engagement. As soft power is a key factor for achieving international objectives and legitimizing actions, we should take it into account when assessing a countrys greatness. Furthermore, the state identity as a leader is also a decisive factor. A great power is a state which has bargaining power in international arena and the ability to take action independently. Independent does not mean refusal to bring itself in line with the international system, but referring to not being the target of intervention by other powers. And the identity as a leader also refers to active and co-operative role in the international system. My definition for Great Power is a combination of tangible and intangible elements. To conclude, a great power is an active player in the international arena with strong economic, military strength and soft power, while having interests and capacity to project its influence to places beyond its region. At the same time, the targeted place welcomes its influence. III. Is China a Great Power in Africa? Chinas rapidly increasing engagement in Africa is virtually rooted in her remarkable rise as a global power. With greater involvement into African market in the form of development assistance, trade and investment, together with some level of military cooperation, peacekeeping and employment of soft power, China has emerged as a key-player in Africa. The expansiveness of her activities has gone beyond the Western engagement that came before her in the region and her engagement became one of the most significant developments for Africa in recent years. Through playing an active and positive role in Africa, China has built up her benign image and Great Power status in the world. This part of the paper analyses Chinas foreign policy towards Africa since the early 1990s to discuss whether China is a Great power in Africa or not. As mentioned in the first part of this research paper, one of the criteria to be a Great power is the ability to influence on the region you interested, at the same time, your influence and intervention are welcomed by the region. Therefore, the second part of this paper examines the objectives underlying Chinese foreign policy towards Africa and discusses whether China is successful in achieving those objectives. Chinas involvement on the African continent will be reviewed from various levels, including economic engagement, political presence, military ties and the projection of soft power. It argues that the impressive scale and scope of Chinas engagement together with the positive reactions from African countries to Chinas expanding presence proved China to be a Great Power in Africa. Chinas Objectives in Africa Chinas rapidly expanding engagement in Africa is actually part of its transformation of the foreign policy to a more active one. Chinese objectives in Africa basically include, access to natural resources, export markets,à [13]à projecting her influence beyond the Asia-Pacific region and thus strengthening Chinas status as a Great Power. Facing fierce criticism from the West after the Tiananmen Incident in 1989, China started to establish closer ties with non-Western countries.à [14]à Since African states constitute a massive voting clout as they occupied over one-fourth of the seats in United Nations General Assembly, China can be benefited from developing cordial relations with them. In the 1990s, China greatly increased her assistance to developing countries, especially to African countries.à [15]à China helped African states overcome their tremendous poverty, boosting the African economic through comprehensive investment and development in the region. Beside economic sphere, Chinas contribution in United Nation peacekeeping and continued training and educational assistance reflects Chinas significant role in Africa that it can be conceived as a Great Power in the region. Chinas Political presence in Africa The beginning of the relations between China and Africa can be dated back to the voyages of Zheng He (1372-1433) in the Ming dynasty, while some scholars regarded the Bandung Conference of 1955 marked the real start of Africa-China relations.à [16]à The momentum of closer ties greatly accelerated throughout the last 10 years. Their closer relationships signalized by frequent high-level diplomatic trips by Chinese leaders to African capitals and frequent high-level diplomatic trips by African leaders to Beijing.à [17]à In 2006 there were 48 African states heads gathered in Beijing for the Forums on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), which marked the largest gathering of African top political leaders outside of the United Nations (UN).à [18]à Besides, there are rapid establishment of African and Chinese migrant communities in both China and Africa. In addition to governmental level interactions, continuing increase in interactions between ordinary Africans and Chinese can also be seen within their relationship.à [19]à The first part of this paper has mentioned that we may assess a country is a Great Power or not from a geographical perspective. Through this perspective, Chinas engagement in Africa is broad enough as a Great Power because it maintains official diplomatic relations with 48 African countries out of the total number of 53.à [20]à Several events reflected African support to China, for example, they supported Beijing to be the host city for 2008 Olympic Games during the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decision-making process. Also, Africa supported Chinas One-China policy and helped prevent Taiwan from getting a seat in United Nations many times.à [21]à Moreover, China is actively participating in the affairs of the African Union (AU). China promised $100-$150 million for constructing permanent headquarters and attended African Union summits in 2006 and 2007.à [22]à Chinas governments assistance has been appreciated by Africa. Jean Ping, the chairperson of the Commission of the African Union, commended China in January 2009 for her contributions to Africa and identified China as Africas key strategic partner.à [23]à He also expressed that the African Union would like to boost consultation and cooperation with China on the regional and international affairs.à [24]à Different from the European great powers in the 19th century, China did not send her troops to Africa to fight wars and depriving the African aborigine. Rather, China has demonstrated effort for keeping peace without appearing military threat. According to Xinhua News Agency in 2007, a total of 1,400 Chinese troops are taking part in separate UN peacekeeping operations in seven African countries, including Sudan, where 415 Chinese peacekeepers are deployed in the south.à [25]à The number of military personnel deployed by China in peacekeeping operations in Africa exceeds those of other permanent members of the UN Security Council, making China the largest contributor of all. Furthermore, China provides financial support to the African Union regarding the peacekeeping in Somalia and Darfur.à [26]à Politically, China has a strong presence and influence in Africa. China also plays an active and constructive role in peacekeeping activities in Africa. At the same time, Chinas role has been highly recognized by the African countries. For example, the top official in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ethiopia commended that, never in modern history has a nation successfully made such a determined and massive effort as China has in achieving progress within such a short span of time. Ethiopia has been following this remarkable achievement with great interest and admiration.à [27]à As mentioned above, a Great Power able to influence the region at the same the region welcomes your influence. From this perspective, China is qualified as a Great Power in Africa. Chinas Military Presence in Africa For arm sales to Africa, China ranked the third from 2003 to 2006.à [28]à Although Chinas military ties with Africa are not as strong as political and economic ties, to some African states, military cooperation with China is extremely crucial. Especially for those countries under civil wars but that came under military embargo from the west, for example, Sudan and Zimbabwe. China has established some small arm factories in Sudan and Uganda, producing light weaponry for the region. Besides, in 2005 and 2006, Nigeria purchased missiles and fighter jets from China and in turns, awarded oil contracts to China.à [29]à In fact, China maintains security and military relations with all African countries except those four countries diplomatically recognize Taiwan. In this sense, China maintains a great military presence in the region. Also, its armament sales and peacekeeping activities have the capacity to alter the political situation in Africa. Chinas major objectives in Africa are getting natural resources and maintaining economic interests. And she is able to achieve her goals through providing the military resources to persuade African countries to help her. To counter the American presence in Africa, China will continue to expand its military ties with African countries, at the same time, making contributions to the United States peacekeeping in the region. Chinas steps will further enhance her Great Power status in Africa. Chinas Economic Presence in Africa The volume of China-Africa trade in recent years increased dramatically, from $8.92 billion in 2001 to $40 billion dollars in 2005, $73 billion in 2007, and reached $106.8 billion in 2008. China is now, overtaking Britain and France, became Africas second largest trading partner after the United States.à [30]à 31 China has extended scope of duty-free imports from Africa from 190 to 440 items and is discussing with the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) for proposing a free-trade agreement between them.à [32]à African countries greatly appreciated Chinas removal of tariffs on goods as they have been benefited from Chinas action.à [33]à In 2001, Hu Jintao called for Chinese enterprises to go global. Key State Owned Enterprises have begun to set up joint ventures in extractive industries in Africa.à [34]à In 2005, China had already established over 800 enterprises in Africa region.à [35]à In 2009, Chinese investments by both the government and private enterprise in Africa almost tripled in value compared to the figures in 2000.à [36]à Between 2000 and 2003, China provided $1.3billion in debt relief to 27 African countries and an additional $1.2 billion in debt cancellation for 33 African countries in 2006.à [37]à In addition, China has provided considerable amount of development aid, in the form of low-interest loans, to African countries. China provided $13 billion to Angola, $9 billion to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and $2.5 billion to Ethiopia as well.à [38]à Additionally, China is the members of African Development Bank Group (AfDB), African Development Fund (ADF) and West African Development Bank (WADB). China contributed to the Banks institutional activities, and technical assistance operations to promote economic and social development in Africa. China hosted the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Board of Governors of the AfDB and the 33rd Annual Meeting of the Board of Governors of the ADF in Shanghai in May 2007.à [39]à Besides, China is engaging actively into the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the South African Development Community (SADC).à [40]à All these reflected Chinas pivotal role in Africa. With ongoing economic and trade cooperation and exchange, we can see that China presence in Africa keeps rapidly growing and China has capability to influence events in the region. As African countries are yearning for an alternative to the West that they have relied on over a long period of time, they are in need of Chinese investment and assistance to help develop their economies. Unlike the Western donors who tend to impose Western values like democratic ideas on Africa, China invest and provide aid without much preconditions and interference in their internal affairs, therefore, it is not unimaginable that China is regarded by Africa as a more cooperative and valuable partner to the West. Besides providing loans, China also invest in infrastructure development and many high-visibility projects, that the African leaders generally in favor. Physical infrastructure constructions have been long neglected if not avoided by Western donors.à [41]à Also, Chinese investors are highly reputed by the African of their rapid completion of infrastructures with acceptable qualities.à [42]à Moreover, the General populace in Africa prefers physical infrastructure to monetary aid as the aid money would eventually be manipulated by corrupt leaders. Through providing more practical help, Chinas influence and presence in Africa are further strengthened. Nevertheless, some argue that there are also many complications for China to expand her presence in Africa. The biggest obstacle is the anti-Chinese sentiment resulting from the flooding of cheaper Chinese manufactured goods in African markets. The Chinese firms underbid many local firms in Africa, causing close down of factories and unemployment. However, we should not neglect that import of cheaper goods from China means that the African can buy many goods that they could not afford to purchase before. And the Chinese investment projects at least created some new job opportunities for the Africans. All these actually have improved the living standards of many general Africans. Nowadays, China has already constituted a pivotal part in the African economy. Although the Africans may consider Chinese engagement as a challenge as they worry about Chinas growing global power may turn her role in African to become as stifling as they have experienced with the westà [43]à , generally, they need Chinas participation and the African leaders today consider Chinese embrace as not only a source of investment, but also a chance as well as a counterbalance to the West. Soft power To access a country is a Great power or not, we do not only consider its influence over their targeted regions through economic and military power, but also the influence through soft power. When examining Chinas power in Africa, its projection of soft power should not be neglected. As mentioned in the first part of this paper, soft power rests on the ability to shape the preferences of othersà [44]à In this paper, Chinas soft power policy refers to the use of cultural, educational means to boost her image and thus to influence public opinion and persuade nations abroad in Chinas favour. The establishment of Confucius Institutes and the recruitment of international students are prominent forms of Chinese projection of soft power. China has already set up more than 20 Confucius Institutes throughout Africa, teaching African people Mandarin, Chinese history and culture.à [45]à China has educational relationships with 50 African countries and keeps increasing her assistance on training and education to African countries. In 2005, China also hosted the Sino-African Education Minister Forum.à [46]à In 2007, there are around 5,900 students from Africa studying in China, with most of them receiving scholarships provided by the Chinese government.à [47]à The Chinese government also promised to double the number of such scholarships by 2011,à [48]à and establish 10 agricultural technology centers in Africa.à [49]à Every year, China trained large number of African professionals in fields of agriculture, education, medical science, etc. Besides, Chinas state-run Xinhua news agency also trains African journalists in both Africa and China.à [50]à Chinas use of education, technical training and cultural exchange as a channel of employing soft power is successful in boosting Chinas image in Africa and thus expanding its global influence. The projection of soft power can essentially gain the support from the general public in Africa. With closer and closer educational relationships, the future generations and educated elites in Africa will certainly have better understanding about China. Having support from governments, and non-governmental actors, including both educated elites and general populace, China gained legitimacy as a Great Power. IV. Conclusion My definition of great power as mentioned in the first part of the essay, is an active player in the international arena with strong econ
Saturday, January 18, 2020
5.05 Works Cited
I do think that the lawsuit against Brianna LaHara was fair; she technically stole over a thousand songs. I do feel that it is a bit unfair that there was a law suit against a 12 year old, but also she needed it to be done now before she got herself into some real trouble when she was older. If it was me in this situation, I would just give myself over to them and confess what I did. I do not think it is a reasonable program at all.I am not one for having that fear constantly eating at the back of my brain, so I would rather just face the consequences. If I knew I was at such risk for arrest and lawsuits, I would turn myself in voluntarily. There are too many risks, and cases already made against this subject. According to CBS News, a woman in 2009 illegally downloaded TOO much music! She shared copyrighted music online and levied $222,000 in damages against her.She even had to pay the six record companies that sued her $9,250 for each of 24 songs they focused on in the case. WORKS C ITED: ââ¬Å"Woman Faces The Music, Loses Download Case. â⬠CBSNews. CBS Interactive, n. d. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. . ââ¬Å"12-year-old Settles Music Swap Lawsuit. â⬠CNN. N. p. , 18 Feb. 2004. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. .
Friday, January 10, 2020
Fashion & Marketing â⬠Individuality vs Conformity Essay
A seemingly intractable paradox underlies Westerners choice of fashion in the twenty-first century. On the one hand, the democratic and social progress made in the West in the past fifty years has led to radical revaluations of, and profound reversals of attitudes towards, issues such as gender, class, race, social stereotypes, cultural identity and so on: in short, the Western citizen of 2005 has far greater personal freedom for expression than could have been conceivable for a Westerner in 1905 or even 2005 (Craik, 1994). The modern student of Western fashion trends might therefore reasonably expect to notice in the clothing choices and styles of twenty-first Westerners ever greater diversity and individuality ââ¬â to notice a kaleidoscopic and multi-coloured efflorescence of personal freedom in fabric and cloth. And, indeed, in many instances in Western society there is a profusion of individual styles mirroring newly liberated individual personalities. Yet, on the other hand, despite this potential for individuality, the fashion student notices, paradoxically, that Westerners are exhibiting an ever greater homogeneity and similarity in their clothing choice ââ¬â for instance, the ubiquitous presence, amongst certain definable social groups, of trendy brands like Tommy Hilfiger, Zara and FCUK. The principal force behind this homogeneity is argued to be (Miles, 1998 & Radford, 1998) the massive and all-consuming power of giant global fashion houses and their resources for mass branding and advertising. To many fashion critics and scholars these hugely powerful companies have come to swamp the potential for personal and individual expression that was made possible by social changes in Europe and America in the past fifty years. In a further paradox, it was these very changes themselves, and the liberation and emancipation of consumer power and choice which they released, which provides the consumer markets and spending-power which make these huge companies possible. In other words, for the gender, class, and social revolutions of the twentieth century to happen this required the protests and emancipation of Western masses; but this very freedom itself created a mass homogeneous market that could be exploited by fashion corporations themselves made possible by these changes. In a final paradox, Rosenfeld (1997) and Davis (1993) argue that modern man is free to choose the clothes he wears and so is himself responsible for submitting himself and his individuality to temptations of mass production and consumerism that surround him. The fascinating question before this literature review is then: why is it that Westerners, granted at last a large measure of personal freedom for expression, ââ¬Ëchooseââ¬â¢ nonetheless to submit themselves to mass trends and to enslave themselves to perhaps an ever greater extent than when such freedom was not obtainable? Of further interest is the question: how have particular cultural groups, and fashion trends, resisted mass consumerism of fashion, and gone on to use these new freedoms to establish exciting and original expressions of their personalities? Section 2: Sources A few words about the origin and authority of the sources used for this literature review are perhaps necessary before turning to the main themes of the review. The principal type of source discussed in this literature review are academic books and journals; in addition, some internet sources are employed also. The academic books referred to in this review are amongst the seminal texts in the literature of fashion and marketing, their authors world-class experts in their fields, and therefore the reliability and authority of their material is extremely high. The fashion student can have high, if not complete, confidence in his employment of these sources to illustrate his themes and arguments. Likewise, those texts from other fields in this review, such as Freudââ¬â¢s The Interpretation of Dreams (Freud, 1900) or Lacanââ¬â¢s Language of the Self (Lacan, 1998), are usually included by critics and scholars in their lists of the most important works of the twentieth-century. They too then may be used by the fashion student with a high degree of trust in their authority and reliability. A note of caution might be sounded however about the employment of internet sources in any literature review. Whereas the process of publishing work in an academic book or journal is a lengthy one, requiring considerable cost and numerous stages of scrutiny by fellow scholars and experts, thus ensuring the quality of those sources, nonetheless, the standards required for publication on the internet are often lower and less vigorous. The vast profusion material released daily on the internet requires the conscientious student to subject the internet sources he employs to greater scrutiny and doubt than might be the case with academic books or journals published in the traditional paper-based way. Consequently, the internet sources used in this literature review have been vigorously scrutinised and tested for their reliability in the fashion described above. Section 3: Review The following literature review is discussed according to the following thematic schema in five parts: (1) The Paradox of Individuality and Conformity, (2), Global Trends and World Markets, (3) Semiotic Theories of Fashion Promotion & Visual Communication, (4) Popular Cultures and Distinctive Identities, and, (5), Sociological & Philosophical Views of Class, Gender, Social Stereotypes and Cultural Identity. The Paradox of Individuality and Conformity The contemporary situation in Western fashion and personal clothing choice is one of apparently irresolvable paradox: Westerners are today endowed with ever greater personal freedoms, extending naturally to their choice of personal clothing and one would expect this freedom to lead to a plethora and profusion of individual styles and manners of dress: these freedoms should result in less conformity of style than was present in say 1905 when gender, class and social prejudices compelled and forced a person to dress in a particular way and style. Yet, despite these abundant new-found freedoms, Western clothing choice in 2005 seems to display ever greater conformity and homogeneity. That is, Westerners are ââ¬Ëchoosingââ¬â¢ to dress more and more alike one another ââ¬â Westernersââ¬â¢ expression of their personalities through their choice of style is showing ever greater similarities to one another. How then could this be possible? This question is discussed at the general level in great depth by F. Davis (1993) Fashion, Clothing and Identity and by Fiske (1990) in Introduction to Communications Studies. Global Trends & World Markets The most persuasive and frequently given answer to the above question is that the rise of huge fashion houses ââ¬â such as Louis Vuitton, Tommy Hilfiger, Armani, Prada, Zara, amongst many others ââ¬â along with their massive resources for branding and advertising, have drowned-out the recently attained freedoms of Western individuals to reflect their personalities in their choice of clothing. This point is powerfully made in D. Craneââ¬â¢s seminal text Fashion and the Social Agenda: Class, Gender and Identity in Clothing. (Crane, 2004). Crane argues that just at the critical historical moment (the end of the 20th Century) when Westerners were finally endowed with greater personal freedoms in fashion and personality expression than ever before, that these freedoms were immediately smothered by forces such as globalization and capitalism which gave birth to vast fashion corporations whose financial resources and advertising capacity have become too great and powerful for individual expression to poke through and flower. This point is corroborated and reinforced by numerous other scholars and authorities in fashion and marketing. F. Davis (1993) in Fashion, Culture and Identity, L. Rosenfeld (1997) in Clothing as Communication, and J. Craik (1994) in The Face of Fashion; Cultural Studies in Fashion all endorse Craneââ¬â¢s central premise that individual freedom of personality expression through clothing and style is suffocated by the capitally fuelled force of the major fashion brands to overwhelm this expression through relentless psychological pressure, carried by advertising, to conform to the style and choice ââ¬Ëimposedââ¬â¢ and ââ¬Ëdecidedââ¬â¢ by these companies and not by individuals themselves. M. Barnard in Fashion as Communication (1996) makes an interesting refinement of this basic premise by suggesting, in a further paradoxical statement, that it is the very freedom of gender, class, social status etc. , of the past fifty years which has led to ever greater conformity to popular styles and to an even greater imposition of style than existed before such freedoms were possible. In other words, to echo a sentiment expressed by Nietzsche in 1888 (Nietzsche, 1888) and Freud in 1900 (Freud, 1900) human beings have natural herd instincts which are present whether people are free or not, and these instincts generate the need for leadership and imposition from one source or another. Thus, whilst before the 1960ââ¬â¢s style conformity was forced upon Westerners by gender and class stereotypes, nonetheless, after the 1960ââ¬â¢s when these stereotypes were lifted, Westerners became susceptible to a new ââ¬Ëauthorityââ¬â¢, ââ¬Ëimpositionââ¬â¢ and ââ¬Ëleadershipââ¬â¢ in the form of vast fashion corporations whose choice of style and expression is propagated through intensive branding and advertising. According to this philosophical view, endorsed by Bruce Stella and Pamela Church Gibson (2000) in Fashion Cultures Theories: Explorations and Analysis, the personalities of Westerners today and their choice of expression of their personalities through clothing, is largely decided by fashion corporations and advertising companies ââ¬â thus resulting in the uniformity of style and expression which is so evident from a casual glance at our high-streets today. Semiotic Theories of Fashion Promotion & Visual Communication A interesting example of the practice of a semiotic theory of fashion promotion is that discussed in A. Rhodesââ¬â¢ and R. Zuloagoââ¬â¢s paper ââ¬ËA Semiotic Analysis of High Fashion Advertisingââ¬â¢ published in 2003. The chief motif of Rhodesââ¬â¢ and Zuloagoââ¬â¢s work is that ââ¬ËFashion advertising is an excellent example of identity-image producing mediaââ¬â¢ (Rhodes & Zuloago, 2003: p8). They state at the outset of their paper that ââ¬ËThe nature of the product is tied directly to identity ââ¬â those objects with which we encase our bodies for public display à - and fashion is acknowledged as a cultural language of styleââ¬â¢; a little further on they add ââ¬ËTaken as a whole, high fashion media and advertising describe a spectrum of identity, unified in general types of signifiers ââ¬â young women, high status, high sexuality ââ¬â and through the constant repetition and variation of images on these themes serve to create this identity spectrum. ââ¬â¢ (Rhodes and Zuloago, 2003, p1). Thus, in their paper, Rhodes and Zuloago seek to define the symbiotic relationship between high fashion and the cultural and social identity of one particular social group: young, rich and sexually confident women. Rhodes and Zuloago argue that the advertising campaigns of companies like Prada, Donna Karen, Armani, Dolce Gabanna and others like them, speak so powerfully and seductively to these women, and that the images employed penetrate so deeply into their consciousness and social orientation, that they come to identify their personalities almost wholly with the product. Rhodes and Zulago recognise, nonetheless, that whilst the influence of major fashion brands over social groups like the one mentioned above is immense that these groups too, by their social characteristics and newly liberated personalities, constantly force the fashion brands to invent new styles and designs that evolve to reflect the changing consciousness of these particular and individualistic groups (Rhodes & Zuloago, 2003: p5). The symbiosis is nearly total; and similar relationships between major brands and other social groups are evident throughout modern Western culture. Popular Cultures and Distinctive Identities R. Radford points out in Dangerous Liaison: Art, Fashion and Individualism (1998) that the mass conformity of modern fashion style and personality expression is not of course universal, and many original and fresh styles ââ¬â punk, gothic, ethnic, etc. , ââ¬â have arisen from the social freedoms of recent decades, both in reaction to the preceding centuries of restricted expression and also in reaction to the monotonous uniformity of the mass-branded and consumer-based style. As suggested in the last sentence, Radford distinguishes between styles which are (1) a reaction to the restrictions of former centuries, (2) those which are defiances of the modern branded uniformity, and, (3), those which are a reaction to neither, but rather are healthy and original efflorescences of cultural uniqueness and individual expression. In the first category Radford places the astonishing growth in popularity of ââ¬Ëgender-liberatedââ¬â¢ products like bikinis, short-skirts and casual clothing which were, in other centuries, repressed by the authorities either because of gender prejudices or inequalities, or because of antiquated ideas about the morality or sexual imprudence of certain items and styles of clothing. To take an instance of gender discrimination cited by Radford (Radford, 1998: pp. 142-148), it was not socially or morally permissible for women in former times to wear beach attire (bikinis, swim-suits etc. ,) that revealed or celebrated anything of the sensuousness or beauty of the female figure; women were therefore universally condemned (in Western countries) to wear a single type plain, non-sexual beachwear. But since the lifting of this social prejudice and stigma, there has been a profusion of designers, from Gucci and Dolce & Gabana to Zara and BHS, who have produced modern designs which allow women to celebrate the sensuality and beauty of the female figure. Women today enjoy the same rights as men to wear what they like either to the beach, to the disco or to work; thus, in this instance, despite the domination of the fashion brands, women now have the opportunity to, and do indeed exhibit in practice, a greater expression of individuality of personality than was possible or permissible before the last decades. In the second category, Radford places fashion styles like punk and gothic: styles which rebel against the conformity of modern mass-consumer culture and relish in the controversy and upsetting of convention induced by the difference of their style. Studded clothing, fluorescent coloured hair, male make-up, cross-dressing etc. , are rebellions against the usual fashion paradigm and make the personality statement that some people disagree with popular sentiment and convention and express this in clothing styles that are often shocking and scandalous (Barthes, 1983). In the third category are individualistic styles, such as ethnic, which are neither reactions to historical repressions or to modern mass conformity, but which are rather healthy flourishing of individual personality or philosophy. For instance, contemporary Western style permits a greater exhibition of ethnic clothing or pride in national dress than was acceptable fifty years ago. F. Davis argued as early as 1988 in Clothing and Fashion Communication that clothing could be a vehicle for greater racial tolerance and for multi-culturalism and racial integration in modern Western society. A concomitant of this toleration is a celebration and pride in the wearing of clothes of national dress; clothes that display part of the personââ¬â¢s personality repressed for decades. Sociological & Philosophical Views of Class, Gender, Social Stereotypes and Cultural Identity Jacques Lacan in Language of the Self (Lacan, 1997) gives a fascinating philosophical and psychological interpretation of the individuality vs. conformity paradox, filtering it the prism of class, gender and social stereotypes, to argue that human beings are essentially language-animals and can be manipulated if one finds the key to the use of this language. Lacan argues in his seminal text Language and the Self (1997) that the social freedoms attained by Westerners in the past half century have given them Westerners unprecedented opportunities to reflect their innermost ââ¬Ëselfââ¬â¢, their basic human constituency, through new cultural media such as television, the arts, and by derivation, fashion and our choice of media. Lacan argues further that the ââ¬Ëselfââ¬â¢ of previously repressed groups such as women, homosexuals, African-Americans and so on is now able to manifest itself in cultural forms that had previously been repressed for centuries, and which are now bursting out in the diversity of artforms prevalent in our society today. Nonetheless, through his principal scientific and philosophical investigation into the language-animal, Lacan argues that Westerners have been seduced by the clever and innovative marketing campaigns of the major fashion brands, who use slogans and images to target specific social groups. Thus Lacan explains the phenomenal seduction of modern Western man to the worded slogans of designer labels and celebrity endorsed products. Lacan suggests that the advertising campaigns of major fashion brands seduce the consumerââ¬â¢s unconscious directly and that this explains the phenomenon of mass conformity to such a homogeneous type of personal expression through fashion as is evident in our society. Section 4: Conclusion In the final analysis, the literature of the fashion and marketing texts on the subject of individuality vs. conformity, and the influence of branding upon this relationship, reveals the following points. Firstly, that a curious and complex paradox deeply underpins the dynamics between individuality and conformity. To the one side, the liberation of women, homosexuals, formerly repressed racial groups, underprivileged classes and others, in the second half of the twentieth-century, has led to a huge mass of people in Western society who have previously unimaginable freedom to wear whatever styles and types of clothing they believe best express their individuality and uniqueness. For instance, gender prejudices removed, women can now wear trousers ; race prejudices declining, repressed groups can wear a city suit or opera tuxedo; in many other instances Westerners are free to dress as however their mood, philosophy and occupation inclines them. On the other hand, the ceaseless ascent to prominence and immense power of the great fashion houses and fashion brands has led to a blanket of homogeneity being spread over the personal expression of many Western consumers. Philosophers like Lacan, and psychologists like Freud and Nietzsche, suggest that man has an innate herd instinct that compels him to conform to the trends of the crowd and to seek a higher authority and leadership to decide and impose his personal expression upon him. According to this view, despite the newly attained freedom of Westerners, they have substituted for the old imposition of gender and class barriers the new authority of the mass product and the famous brand. Thus ââ¬Ëpersonal choiceââ¬â¢ and ââ¬Ëfreedom of expression of personalityââ¬â¢ through clothing are merely illusions that do not correspond to modern reality. Furthermore, the conformity of modern Western dress is, according to D. Crane (Crane, 2004), even more intense today than in other centuries, since in 2005 particular styles and mass produced clothing items ââ¬â Crane gives Leviââ¬â¢s jeans as an example ââ¬â permeate all classes and genders of society and therefore have a ââ¬Ëtotal sphere of conformity and influenceââ¬â¢; in other centuries a particular item or style of clothing would only dominate one social group; today brands like Nike, Zara, Leviââ¬â¢s, Armani and so on, can penetrate the personal expression of every social group from top to bottom. Nonetheless, the flourishing of reactionary and rebellious fashions expressions such as punk and gothic, as well as the profusion of small individualistic designers and such styles as ethnic suggest that the mass produced fashion items have not and will not dominate totally and may even be forced back a little as personal expression is allowed to bloom in the new forms and clothing styles of the twenty-first century. Our final words might be these: that the question of conformity vs. individuality now hangs in a delicate balance and equilibrium, that Western society pivots at a vital moment in the history of its ability to be able to define itself. The opportunity exists for Westerners to dazzle the world with an efflorescence of new styles of clothing that reflect the cultural diversity, racial integration, and class assimilation achieved in the past fifty years. The danger remains nonetheless that these achievements and potential expression will be swamped by the relentless march of mass consumer fashion and our seduction to it. Section 5: Bibliography Academic Books, Journals & Articles ââ¬â Barnard, M. (1996) Fashion as Communication, Routledge ââ¬â Barthes, R. (1967, 1983). The Fashion System, New York: Hill and Wang. ââ¬â Bruzzi Stella & Church, P. G. (2000). Fashion Cultures Theories, Explorations and Analysis, Routledge ââ¬â Craik, J. (1994) The Face of Fashion; Cultural Studies in Fashion, London: Routledge. ââ¬â Crane, D. (2004). Fashion and Its Social Agenda: Class, Gender and Identity in Clothing. Oxford University Press, Oxford. ââ¬â Davis, F. (1985). ââ¬ËClothing and fashion as communicationââ¬â¢, in Solomon, M. R. (ed. ) The Psychology of Fashion, Massachusetts: Lexington Books. ââ¬â Davis, F. (1993). Fashion, Culture and Identity, Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press. ââ¬â Du Gay, P. (1996). Consumption and Identity at Work, London: Sage. ââ¬â Fiske, J. (1990). Introduction to Communication Studies, London: Routledge ââ¬â Freud, S. (1900). The Interpretation of Dreams. Penguin, London. ââ¬â Lacan, J. (Reprinted 1997). Language of the Self, Baltimore, MD. : Johns Hopkins University Press ââ¬â Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, Self and Society, From the Standpoint of a Social Behaviourist, Chicago, IL. : University of Chicago Press ââ¬â Miles, S. (1998). Consumerism as a Way of Life, London: Sage Publications ââ¬â Nietzsche, F. (1888). Ecce Homo. Peter Gast Books, Basel. ââ¬â Quirk, R. (Et al. ). (1989). The Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, Oxford. ââ¬â Radford, R. , ââ¬ËDangerous Liaison: Art, Fashion and Individualismââ¬â¢, Fashion Theory, vol. 2, issue 2, Oxford: Berg, 1998, pp. 151-64. ââ¬â Rosenfeld, L. B. and Plax, T. G. (1997). ââ¬Ë Clothing as communicationââ¬â¢, Journal of Communication, 27: 24-31. ââ¬â Smith, A. (1759/1976). The Theory of the Moral Sentiments, Edinburgh. Internet Sources ââ¬â Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, Self and Society, From the Standpoint of a Social Behaviourist, Chicago, IL. : University of Chicago Press http://www2. pfeiffer. edu/~lridener/DSS/Mead/MINDSELF. HTML ââ¬â Smith, A. (1759/1976). The Theory of the Moral Sentiments, Edinburgh. http://www. adamsmith. org/smith/tms-intro. htm ââ¬â Rhodes, A. & Zuloago, R. (2003). A semiotic Analysis of High Fashion Advertising. www. garhodes. com/Semiotics_of_Fashion. pdf
Thursday, January 2, 2020
Common Core Standards Should Be Just - 1460 Words
Common Core Standards Should Be Just That: Common Common means to share something mutually, why do people find it so difficult to share? Share oneââ¬â¢s feeling? No! Share oneââ¬â¢s ideas? Not that either. No one wants to even share a set of benchmarks. The common core standards are only a set of benchmarks to assure students are learning fundamentals at the right grade level. Yes, they are a work in progress but nothing was perfect in the beginning. While some states have decided against the common core standards, others have chosen to build their curriculum around them. However, each state should consider or reconsider using the common core standards. Yes, change is difficult when one has done the same thing for years. It is hard to adapt to changes but when the benefit outweighs the disadvantages, it is imperative to convert. This generation of children are much brighter and know way more than we give them credit. Their way of learning has evolved, they are more cre ative and innovative; everything should be done to enhance their learning. ââ¬Å"One of the greatest mistakes we make in education is underestimating the capacity of our children to learnâ⬠, says Former Governor Jed Bush (ââ¬Å"National Hispanic Christianâ⬠) . The common core standards is only a betterment for the educational system, giving all children a fighting chance, nationally and internationally. According to a 12 year study, not one of the students tested in the United Sates achieved higher that then theShow MoreRelatedThe Common Core Standards For The Students Of The United States1743 Words à |à 7 PagesThe Common Core Standards were created in 2010 as an ideal system to help the students of the United States compete with top competitors worldwide. 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Main Argument An assessment, conducted by an assistant professor of education andRead MoreCommon Core Standards : A Standard Or A Type Of Curriculum?1713 Words à |à 7 PagesWhat is Common Core? Is it a standard or a type of Curriculum? According to CoreStandards.org, common core is a set of high-quality academic standards in mathematics and English language arts/literacy (ELA). These learning goals outline what a student should know and be able to do at the end of each grade. The standards were created to ensure that all students graduate from high school with the skills and knowledge necessary to succeed in college, career, and life, regardless of where they liveRead MoreAndy Thomson: A Political Leader with Courage814 Words à |à 3 Pagescounties. He is someone that I know will stay true to his Conservative core values when making political decisions. During his second term serving in the Ohio House of Representatives, Rep. Thompson introduced House Bill 237. 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Common Core details what kindergartenersRead MoreOne Size Fits All Schooling915 Words à |à 4 Pages30, 2016 One-Size-Fits-All Schooling Common Core, most people don t even know what it is; but they should. It s the plan our government created in order to bring the same standard to each and every public school in America. Sounds great, right? Truth be told, there is simply no better way to evaluate teachers and reward successful schools then by using a single national standard that they can be held up to. Nevertheless, there is more to education than just evaluating teachers, and comparing schoolsRead MoreCommon Core State Standards ( Ccss )856 Words à |à 4 PagesCommon Core State Standards (CCSS) is a widely debatable topic. Parents, teachers, administration, and even states have taken a stance on what they believe. CCSS is a document created by researchers, teachers, administration, and even the public, stating exactly what each student in grades K-12 should be accomplishing by the end of each level. It is ideally in place for teachers to have a clear understanding of what students are expected to achieve and kno w by each benchmark test so they can ensure
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